Children and Youth Essay

The study of children and youth—or childhood studies—involves researchers from diverse disciplines who theorize and conduct research on children and adolescents. Woodhead (2004) aptly explains, Interest in Childhood Studies is for many born out of frustration with the narrow versions of the child offered by traditional academic discourses and methods of inquiry, especially a rejection of the ways psychology, sociology, and anthropology traditionally partition and objectify the child as subject to processes of development, socialization or acculturation. (P. x) sociologists use these four perspectives, childhood scholars trained in other disciplines also use these perspectives. I will then consider the usefulness of childhood studies as an interdisciplinary area of study and present a vision for the future of childhood studies within sociology. CONTRIBUTIONS OF DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CHILDHOOD STUDIES Historical Approaches to Childhood Studies Historical research informs what the concept of childhood means. Arià ¨s ([1960] 1962) made the first argument that childhood is socially and historically constructed. He did not view it as a natural state defined by biology. By examining works of art dating back 1,000 years, he noted a difference in the rendering of children prior to the 1700s, wherein children were depicted as little adults and not as a distinctive group. In agreement with Arià ¨s, Demos (1970) put forth a similar argument using evidence gathered on the Puritans of the Plymouth Colony in the 1600s, noting that children were not considered a special group with shared needs or status. These researchers asserted that the shift from treating children as small adults to children as valuable individuals to be protected goes hand-in-hand with other societal shifts such as the spread of schooling and the decline of child mortality. While Arià ¨s’s hypothesis has been challenged and criticized by historical research and empirical evidence (see Gittins 2004; Nelson 1994), his ideas have inspired social scientists to study ordinary children, and many studies have been produced as a result. As a dialogue w ith the Since the late 1980s, sociologists have made sizable contributions to the study of children and youth, and the field of childhood studies has become recognized as a legitimate field of academic enquiry. Increasingly, childhood is used as a social position or a conceptual category to study. Like women’s studies, the study of children has emerged as an interdisciplinary field. Researchers of children from established disciplines, such as anthropology, education, history, psychology, and sociology, have found a meeting place in this emergent interdisciplinary field of childhood studies. In the following sections, I will first outline the relative contributions of different approaches to the field of childhood studies. Some approaches find a home within one discipline, while other approaches are used by more than one discipline. Specifically, I will examine approaches outside sociology, such as historical, developmental psychological, and children’s literature, and then I w ill discuss four perspectives used by sociologists, namely the cultural approach, the social structural approach, the demographic approach, and the general socialization approach. While 140 Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 141 The Sociology of Children and Youth– †¢ –141 work of Arià ¨s, De Mause ([1976] 1995:4) developed a psychogenic theory of history, which asserted that parentchild relations have evolved to create greater intimacy and higher emotional satisfaction over time. De Mause explained that parent-child relations evolve in a linear fashion and that parent-child relationships change incrementally and, in turn, fuel further historical change. In response to this, Pollock (1983) dismisses the findings of researchers such as Arià ¨s, Demos, and De Mause, who assert the modern or incremental approach to childhood, arguing that â€Å"parents have always valued their children: we should not seize too eagerly upon theories of fundamental change in parental attitudes over time† (p. 17). While Pollock specifically counters the conclusions of Demos on children living in the 1700s in the Plymouth colony, his conclusions respond to all prior research positing that childhood is a modern concept. Historical research documents that the idea of c hildhood emanates from the middle class as members of the middle class first advanced laws to limit child labor and promoted education and protection of children (Kehily 2004). The shift of children from economic to emotional contributors of the family after the seventeenth century took place first among middle-class boys and later became the expectation for all children, regardless of social class or gender (Zelizer 1985). A good example of this middleclass perspective is illustrated in the writing of Mayhew, a social commentator from the nineteenth century (1861, in Kehily 2004), who writes about a disadvantaged eightyear-old street vendor from the working class who has â€Å"lost all childish ways† in the Watercress Girl in London Labour and the London Poor. While Mayhew calls attention to the plight of workingclass children in the mid-nineteenth century, other research (Steedman 1990; Gittins 1988) indicates that it is not until the early twentieth century that the childhood concept is redefined for working-class children in the United Kingdom. Child poverty and ill health were viewed as social problems and resulted in a shift away from economic to increased emotional value of children and altered expectations that children should be protected and educated (Cunningham 1991). The idea of lost or stolen childhood continues to be prominent in popular discussions of childhood (Kehily 2004:3). With this, historical approaches offer a great deal to the field of childhood studies because they allow us to view the concept of childhood as malleable. The childhood concept does not have the same meaning today as it did 300 years ago in a given culture, and it does not have the same meaning from culture to culture or even across social classes during a historical moment. Most historical research focuses on Western forms of childhood, yet these constructs may be useful for understanding certain aspects of childhood in non-Western contexts, especially when similar socioeconomic factors, such as industrialization, and a shift from an agrarian to a cash economy, may frame conditions. Ideas about how childhood is bound by culture, political economy, and epoch continue to be played out today in many non-Western contexts. For example, Hollos (2002) found that a new partnership family type emerged alongside the lineage-based system as a small Tanzanian community underwent a shift from subsistence agriculture with hoe cultivation to wage labor. These family types exhibited two distinct parental perspectives on what childhood should be and how children should spend their time. Partnership families emerging with a cash economy tend to view their children as a means of enjoyment and pleasure, whereas lineage-based families typically see their children as necessary for labor needs in the near term and as investments and old-age insurance in the long term. In this way, historical perspectives have the potential to inform contemporary cultural and social constructive theories on children and childhood studies. The next step is to move beyond Arià ¨s and the dialogue he cre ated to address the persistence of current social issues that involve children such as child poverty, child labor, and disparities across childhoods worldwide (see Cunningham 1991). Developmental Psychological Approaches to Childhood Studies Sully’s Studies of Childhood (Sully [1895] 2000, quoted in Woodhead 2003) notes, â€Å"We now speak of the beginning of a careful and methodological investigation of child nature.† By the early twentieth century, developmental psychology became the dominant paradigm for studying children (Woodhead 2003). Developmental psychology has studied and marked the stages and transitions of Western childhood. Piaget’s (1926) model of developmental stages stands as the foundation. Within the developmental psychology framework, children are adults in training and their age is linked to physical and cognitive developments. Children travel a developmental path taking them in due time to a state of being adult members of the society in which they live (Kehily 2004). Children are therefore viewed as learners with potential at a certain position or stage in a journey to child to an adult status (Verhellen 1997; Walkerdine 2004). Social and cultural researchers have critiqued the developmental psychological approach, largely faulting its treatment of children as potential subjects who can only be understood along the child-to-adult continuum (Buckingham 2000; Castenada 2002; James and Prout [1990] 1997; Jenks 2004; Lee 2001; Stainton Rogers et al. 1991). Qvortrup (1994) notes that developmental psychology frames children as human becomings rather than human beings. Adding to this, Walkerdine (2004) suggests that while psychology is useful in understanding children, this usefulness may be bound to Western democratic societies at a specific historical moment. Still, Lee (2001) cautions that we should not give developmental psychology a wholesale toss, noting, â€Å"What could growing up mean once we have distanced ourselves Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 142 142– †¢ –THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE LIFE COURSE from the dominant frameworks’ account of socialization and development?† (p. 54). Likewise, Kehily (2004) notes that considering differences between sociology and developmental psychology is useful, yet it is also useful to consider what is shared or complementary across the two. Developmental psychologists have not reached consensus on the relative importance of physical, psychological, social, and cultural factors in shaping children’s development (Boocock and Scott 2005). Gittins (1988:22) urges social scientists studying children to bear in mind the nature versus nurture debate. Bruner (2000) explains that both biological and social factors are important because babies are born with start-up knowledge, which they then add and amend with life experiences. Concurring with this approach, Chomsky (1996) explains that a child’s biological makeup is â€Å"awakened by experience† and â€Å"sharpened and enriched† through interactions with other h umans and objects. Walkerdine (2004) considers developmental psychology as limited because of its deterministic trajectory and sociology as limited because of its omission of psychological factors alongside sociological or cultural factors. Walkerdine (2004) points to several developmental psychological approaches to consider the social production of children as subjects, namely situated learning (Cole and Scribner 1990; Haraway 1991), acquiring knowledge through practice or apprenticeship (Lave and Wenger 1991), actor network theory (Law and Moser 2002), and the idea of assemblages as children learn to fill a child role in society (Deleuze and Guattari 1988). These approaches allow the researcher to include children’s internal and external learning practices and processes. As such, developmental psychology can continue to contribute to childhood studies. In the 1990s, sociologists helped cull and identify useful concepts and tools for childhood studies by criticizing develop mental psychology. As the field of childhood studies continues to grow into a defined and recognized discipline, useful tools and concepts from developmental psychology should be included. Likewise, Woodhead (2003) asserts that several concepts and tools from developmental psychology— notably scaffolding, zone of proximal development, guided participation, cultural tools, communities of practice—are also relevant for childhood studies (see Lave and Wenger 1991; Mercer 1995; Rogoff 1990; Wood 1988). Psychologists’ concern with the individual child can complement sociological research that considers children as they interact within their environment. worlds are created. Hunt (2004) notes that children’s literature may be unreliable for understanding childhood because children’s books typically reflect the aspirations of adults for children of a particular epoch. Hunt (2004) holds however that children’s literature remains a meeting place for adults and children where different visions of childhood can be entertained and negotiated. In agreement with historical research on the concept of childhood, children’s books were first produced for middle-class children and had moralizing purposes. Later, children’s books were produced for all children, filled with middleclass values to be spread to all. There is agreement and disagreement on the definition of childhood when examining the children’s literature of different time periods and different cultures. For example, several books of the 1950s and 1960s—including The Borrowers, Tom’s Midnight Garden, and The Wolves of Willoughby C hase—depicted adults looking back while children are looking forward (Hunt 2004). Likewise, Spufford (2002:18) notes that the 1960s and 1970s produced a second golden age of children’s literature that presented a coherent, agreed-on idea of childhood. Furthermore, an examination of children’s literature indicates different childhoods were being offered to children in the United States and Britain during the nineteenth century. British children were depicted as being restrained, while American children were described as independent and having boundless opportunity (Hunt 2004). In this way, culture and children’s material world coalesce to offer very different outlooks on life to children. The goal of books may change, from moralizing to idealistic, yet across epochs and cultures they teach children acceptable roles, rules, and expectations. Children’s literature is a powerful platform of interaction wherein children and adults can come together to d iscuss and negotiate childhood. Cultural and Social Construction Approaches to Childhood Studies Anthropological cultural studies have laid important groundwork for research on children, and sociologists have extended these initial boundaries to develop a social construction of childhood. Anthropological research (Opie and Opie 1969) first noted that children should be recognized as an autonomous community free of adult concerns and filled with its own stories, rules, rituals, and social norms. Sociologists then have used the social construction approach, which draws on social interaction theory, to include children’s agency and daily activities to interpret children’s lives (see James and Prout [1990] 1997; Jenks 2004; Maybin and Woodhead 2003; Qvortrup 1993; Stainton Rogers et al. 1991; Woodhead 1999). Childhood is viewed as a social phenomenon (Qvortrup 1994). With this perspective, meaning is interpreted through the experiences of children and the networks within which Children’s Literature as an Approach to Childhood Studies Childhood as a separate stage of life is portrayed in children’s books, and the medium of books represents a substantial part of the material culture of childhood. Books may be viewed as a window onto children’s lives and a useful tool for comprehending how and why children’s Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 143 The Sociology of Children and Youth– †¢ –143 they are embedded (Corsaro 1988). Researchers generally use ethnographic methods to attain reflexivity and include children’s voices. In this section, I will first discuss the social constructivist approach of childhood research in two areas, children’s lives within institutional settings such as day care centers and schools, and children’s worlds as they are constructed through material culture. Evidence suggests that young children actively add meaning and create peer cultures within institutional settings. For example, observations of toddler peer groups show preferences for sex emerge by two years of age and race can be distinguished by three years of age (Thompson, Grace, and Cohen 2001; Van Ausdale and Feagin 2001). Research also indicates that play builds on itself and across playgroups or peer groups. Even when the composition of children’s groups changes, children develop rules and rituals that regulate the continuation of the play activity as well as who may join an existing group. Knowledge is sustained within the peer group even when there is fluctuation. School-based studies (see Adler and Adler 1988; Corsaro 1988; Hardman 1973; LaReau 2002; Thorne 1993; Van Ausdale and Feagan) have added a great deal to our understandings of childh ood. Stephens (1995) examined pictures drawn by Sami School children of Norway to learn how the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster and its nuclear fallout affected their lives. The children expressed themselves through their drawings to show how the depleted environment affected their health, diet, work, daily routines, and cultural identity. Van Ausdale and Feagan (2001) explain how racism is created among preschool children’s play patterns and speak. They find that children experiment and learn from one another how to identify with their race and learn the privileges and behaviors of their race in comparison with other races. Using participant observation of children in a primary school setting, Hardman (1973) advanced the idea that children should be studied in their own right and treated as having agency. She found that children represent one level of a society’s beliefs, values, and social interactions. The children’s level interacts as muted voices with other levels of society’s beliefs, values, and social interactions, shaping them and being shaped by them (Hardman 1973). Corsaro (1988) used participant observations of chi ldren at play in a nursery school setting to augment Hardman’s idea of a children’s level. He observed and described children as active makers of meaning through social interaction. Likewise, Corsaro and Eder (1990) conceptualize children as observing the adult world but using elements of it to create a unique child culture. A few studies (see Peer Power by Adler and Adler 1988 and Gender Play by Thorne 1993) show how the cultural world of children creates a stratification structure similar to that of the adult world in a way that makes sense for children. Thorne’s (1993) study of children’s culture is set in an elementary school setting, wherein children have little say in making the rules and structure. Still, she finds children create meaning through playground games that use pollution rituals to reconstruct larger social patterns of inequality as they occur through gender, social class, and race (Thorne 1993:75). Similarly, other studies show how behaviors within peer cultures—such as racism, masculinity, or sexism (see Frosh, Phoenix, and Pattman 2002; Hey 1997; James, Jenks, and Prout 1998) and physical and emotional abuse (Ambert 1995)—are taught and negotiated within children’s peer groups. In addition, childhood can be interpreted through the material makeup of children’s worlds, generally taking the form of toys (see Lamb 2001; Reynolds 1989; Zelizer 2002). Zelizer (2002) argues that children are producers, consumers, and distributors. Lamb (2001) explains that children use Barbie dolls to share and communicate sexual knowledge within a peer group producing a secretive child culture. Cook (2004) contends that the concept of child has been constructed through the m arket. Through a social history of the children’s clothing industry, Cook explains how childhood became associated with commodities. He contends that childhood began to be commodified with the publication of the first children’s clothing trade journal in 1917. By the early 1960s, the child had become a legitimate consumer with its own needs and motivations. The consuming child has over time been provided a separate children’s clothing department stratified by age and gender. As in Cook’s thesis, others (e.g., Buckingham 2004; Jing 2000; Postman 1982) provide evidence to add support to the idea that children’s consumption defines childhood. Jing (2000) explains how the marketing of snack foods and fast foods to children has dramatically affected childhood in China. Likewise, television (Postman 1982) and computers (Buckingham 2004) reshape what we think of as childhood. Children are argued to have a reversed power relationship with adults in terms o f computers because children are more comfortable with this technology (Tapscott 1998). In addition, access to the Internet has created a new space for peer culture that is quite separate from adults. Through chat rooms and e-mail, children can communicate and share information among peers without face-to-face interaction. As a result, the stage on which children’s culture is created is altered. Social Structural Approaches to Childhood Studies Social structural approaches to childhood studies can be divided into two areas, those that distinguish children’s experience by age status and those that distinguish children’s experience by generational status. Because age is the primary criterion for defining childhood, sociologists who study children have found aging and life course theories that focus on generation to be useful. Thorne (1993) argues for the use of age and gender constructs in understanding children’s lives as well as considering Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 144 144– †¢ –THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE LIFE COURSE children as social agents. Therefore, it is how children actively construct their worlds as a response to the constraints of age and gender. Passuth (1987) asserts that age is the salient factor for understanding childhood based on her study of how children 5 to 10 years old define themselves as little and big kids in a summer camp setting. Passuth found that age was more important than other stratification markers such as race, social class, and gender. Likewise, Bass (2004) finds that children are active agents but also that age should be considered first as it may structure the opportunities open to children who work in an open market in sub-Saharan Africa; however, other secondary factors such as economic status and gender also structure the life chances of these children. Studies based on children in the United States suggest that age should be considered along with race, gender, and social class to explain how children negotiate power and prestige within their peer groups (Goodwin 1990; Scott 2002). For other sociologists, generation provides the most useful concept to explain the lives of children (Mayall 2000:120). Other researchers (Alanen 2001; Qvortrup 2000) assert that generational relationships are more meaningful than analyses focusing on gender, social class, or ethnicity. While the concept of childhood is not universal, the dichotomy of adult and child is universal and differentiated by age status. This age status patterns differential power relations wherein adults have more power than children and adults typically regulate children’s lives. Childhood is produced as a response to the power of adults over children even when children are viewed as actively shaping their childhoods (Walkerdine 2004). Adults write children’s books, create children’s toys and activities, and often speak on behalf of children (e.g., the law). In this way, the generational divide and unequal authority between adults and children define childhood. Mayall (2002) uses the generational approach to explain how children contribute to social interaction through their position in the larger social order, wherein they hold a child status. The perspective of children remains meaningful even through the disadvantaged power relationship they hold vis-à  -vis adults in the larger social order. It can therefore become a balancing act between considering structural factors or the agency of children in understanding childhood. The life course perspective holds that individuals of each generation will experience life in a unique way because these individuals share a particular epoch, political economy, and sociocultural context. Foner (1978) explains, â€Å"Each cohort bears the stamp of the historical context through which it flows [so that] no two cohorts age in exactly the same way† (p. 343). For example, those who entered adulthood during the Depression have different work, educational, and family experiences compared with individuals who entered adulthood during the affluent 1950s. Those of each cohort face the same larger social and political milieu and therefore may develop similar attitudes. The social structural child posits that childhood may be identified structurally by societal factors that are larger than age status but help create age status in a childhood process (Qvortrup 1994). Children can be treated by researchers as having the same standing as adult research subjects but also may be handled differently based on features of the social structure. The resulting social structural child has a set of u niversal traits that are related to the institutional structure of societies (Qvortrup 1993). Changes in social norms or values regarding children are tied to universal traits as well as related to the social institutions within a particular society. Demographic Approaches to Childhood Studies Much of American sociology takes a top-down approach to the study of children and views children as being interlinked with the larger family structure. It is in this vein that family instability leading to divorce, family poverty, and family employment may affect children’s experiences. For example, Hernandez (1993) examines the American family using U.S. Census data from the twentieth century and notes a series of revolutions in the family—such as in decreased family size and the emergence of the two-earner family—that in turn affected children’s well-being and childhood experiences. Children from smaller families and higher incomes typically attain more education and take higher-paid employment. Hernandez (1993) contends that mothers’ increased participation in work outside the home led to a labor force revolution, which in turn initiated a child care revolution, as the proportion of preschoolers with two working parents increased from 13 percent in 1940 to 50 percent in 1987. More recent data indicate that about 70 percent of the mothers of preschoolers work outside the home (U.S. Bureau of the Census 2002). This child care revolution changes the structure of childhood for most American children. Time diary data indicate that the amount of children’s household chores increased from 1981 to 1997 (Hofferth and Sandberg 2001). Lee, Schneider, and Waite (2003) further note that when mothers work in the United States, children do more than their fathers to make up for the household labor gap caused when mothers work. Hence, expectations for children and childhood are altered because of a larger family framework of considerations and expectations. Family life structures children’s well-being. When marriages break up, there are real consequences in terms of transitions and loss of income that children experience. The structural effects on children of living in smaller, more diverse, and less stable families are still being investigated. Moore, Jeki elek, and Emig (2002) assert that family structure does matter in children’s lives and that children fare better in families headed by two biological, married parents in a low-conflict marriage. Some research indicates that financial support from fathers after a divorce is low (Crowell and Leaper 1994). Coontz (1997) maintains that divorce and single parenthood generally exacerbate preexisting financial uncertainty. These impoverished conditions may diminish children’s physical and emotional Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 145 The Sociology of Children and Youth– †¢ –145 development and adversely affect school performance and social behaviors. However, this is not in all cases. Research (Cherlin et al. 1991) shows that children of separated or divorced families have usually experienced parental conflict and behavioral and educational problems before the family broke up. Hernandez (1993) suggests that the parental conflict and not the divorce or separation may provide more insight into children’s disadvantages. Hetherington and Kelly (2002) found that about three-fourths of children whose parents divorced adjusted within six years and ranked the same on behavioral and educational outcomes as children from intact families. Another study (Smart, Neale, and Wade 2001) finds positive attributes of children of divorce as children reported that they were more independent than friends who had not experienced divorce. The demographic study of children has taken place predominantly from the policy or public family vantage point with the assumption that there are consequences for children. Childhoods are typically framed with a perspective that views children’s worlds as being derivative of larger social forces and structures. Very little agency is noted or measured in these studies. While the demographic approach does not offer detailed explanation like research put forth by social constructivist childhood scholars (see James and Prout 1990), this approach provides a valuable perspective for framing and interpreting children’s lives. Socialization Approaches to Childhood Studies Research indicates that socialization may affect both children and parents. Developmental psychology allows us to consider how children are affected by the socialization provided by parents, and more recent research put forth by psychologists and sociologists suggests that this exchange of information may be a two-way process. LaReau (2002) puts forth a more traditional model of socialization as she details how American families of different races and classes provide different childhoods for their children. In her research, the focus is on how children and parents actively construct childhood even as they are possibly constrained by race and class. She found evidence for two types of child rearing, concerted cultivation among middle- and upper-middle-class children, and the emergence of natural growth among working- and lower-class children. LaReau’s study describes the process that puts lower- and higher-class children on different roads in childhood that translate into vastl y different opportunities in adulthood. Rossi and Rossi (1990) studied parent-child relationships across the life course and found that parents shape their children as well as their grandchildren through parenting styles, shared genes, social status, and belief systems. Alwin (2001) asserts that while rearing children is both a public and private matter, the daily teaching of children the rules and roles in society largely falls to parents. Furthermore, Alwin (2001) explains how American parental expectations for their children have changed over the last half-century, noting an increased emphasis on self-discipline through children’s activities that help develop autonomy and self-reliance. Zinnecker (2001) notes a parallel trend in Europe toward individualism and negotiation, and away from coercion in parenting styles. In contrast, Ambert’s (1992) The Effect of Children on Parents questions the assumptions of the socialization perspective and posits that socialization is a two-way process. Ambert argues that having children can influence one’s health, income, career opportunities, values and attitudes, feelings of control, life plans, and the quality of interpersonal relations. She questions the causality of certain problematic children’s behaviors, such as clinginess among some young children or frequent crying among premature babies. Ambert contends that children’s behavior socializes parents in a patterned way, which agrees with the sentiment of de Winter (1997) regarding autistic children and that Skolnick (1978) regarding harsh child-rearing methods. Likewise, psychologist Harris (1998) argues that the parental nurture or socialization fails to ground the direction of causation with empirical data. She explains that parenting styles are the effect of a child’s temperament and that parents’ socialization has little influence compared with other influences such as heredity and children’s peer groups. Harris’s approach, known as group socialization theory, posits that after controlling for differences in heredity, little variance can be explained by children’s socialization in the home environment. Harris provides evidence that most children develop one behavioral system that they use at home and a different behavioral system for use elsewhere by middle childhood. Group socialization theory can then explain why immigrant children learn one language in the home and another language outside the home, and their native language is the one they speak with their peers (Harris 1998). Likewise, other studies (Galinski 1999; Smart et al. 2001) find evidence that children play a supportive role and nurture their parents. In a parallel but opposing direction, other studies suggest that having children negatively affects parents’ lifestyles and standards of living (Boocock 1976) and disproportionately and negatively affects women’s career and income potentials (Cri ttenden 2001). Indeed, research indicates that socialization may affect both children and parents. While most research concentrates on the socialization of children by parents and societal institutions, more research should focus on the socialization of parents. In this way, children may be viewed as affecting the worlds of their parents, which in turn may affect children. Interdisciplinary Involvement and Implications Childhood research benefits from the involvement of a diverse range of disciplines. On the surface these approaches appear to have disagreement in terms of methods and theoretical underpinnings, yet these approaches challenge more traditional disciplines such as sociology, psychology, and anthropology to consider what best interprets children’s lives. In some cases, the interaction across Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 146 146– †¢ –THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE LIFE COURSE disciplines creates new approaches, such as those of sociologists who use general socialization theory from developmental psychology. Similarly, historical research on the value of children being tied to a certain epoch with a specific level of political economy can inform the valuation of children and their labor in poorer countries around the globe today. There is a need for continued interdisciplinary collaboration, and thought is being given to how children and childhood studies could emerge as a recognized interdisciplinary field of inquiry. Woodhead (2003) offers three models for interdisciplinary effort for advancing the study of children and childhoods: (1) a clearinghouse model, (2) a pick ‘n’ mix model, and (3) a rebranding model. The clearinghouse model (Woodhead 2003) would include all studies of children and childhood, all research questions and methodologies, and all disciplines that are interested. This clearinghouse model would view different approaches t o the study of children for their complementary value and would encourage researchers to ask â€Å"different but equally valid questions† (James et al. 1998:188). The pick ‘n’ mix model (Woodhead 2003) envisions that an array of child-centered approaches would be selectively included in the study of children. If this were to happen, the process of selection could complicate and hamper the field of childhood studies in general. Fences may be useful in terms of demarcating the path for childhood scholars but also may obstruct the vista on the other side. The rebranding model (Woodhead 2003) would involve researchers collaborating across disciplines on research involving children while informing and remaining housed within more traditional disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, and psychology. In this scenario, children and childhood scholars remain within sociology while also being committed to interdisciplinary involvement. This scenario has served to strengthen sociological research in general. For example, James and Prout (1990) coined the term sociological study of childhood, and later James et al. (1998) developed the con cept of sociological child. More recently, Mayall (2002) has suggested the use of the term sociology of childhood to move children and childhood studies to a more central place within sociology. In turn, this strengthens children and childhood studies across disciplines by forging a place for children in the traditional discipline. The field of interdisciplinary childhood studies has the potential to widen its reach by creating constituencies across older disciplines. Additionally, childhood studies can learn from the development experience of other interdisciplinary fields such as women’s studies or gerontology. Oakley (1994:13) asserts the shared concerns across the academic study of women and children because women and children are socially linked and represent social minority groups. In a similar vein, Bluebond-Langner (2000) notes a parallel in scholarly potential for childhood studies of the magnitude of women’s studies, predicting that childhood studies will aff ect the twenty-first century in much the same way as women’s studies has the twentieth century. Weighing the contributions across disciplines, it is clear that developmental psychology has laid the groundwork for the field of childhood studies, yet the resulting conversation across scholars and disciplines has produced a field that is much greater than the contributions of any one contributing discipline. Therefore, childhood scholars have much to gain through conversation and collaboration. CONSIDERING SOCIOLOGY AND CHILDHOOD STUDIES Within sociology, scholars approach the study of children in many ways. Some sociologists take a strict social constructivist approach, while others meld this approach to a prism that considers social structures that are imposed on children. Some sociologists focus on demographic change, while others continue to focus on aspects of socialization as childhoods are constructed through forces such as consumer goods, child labor, children’s rights, and public policy. All these scholars add to the research vitality and breadth of childhood studies. In addition, children and childhood studies research centers, degree programs, and courses began to be established in the 1990s, most of which have benefited from the contributions of sociologists and the theories and methods of sociology. Childhood studies gained firm ground in 1992 in the United States when members of the American Sociological Association (ASA) formed the Section on the Sociology of Children. Later, the section name wa s changed to the Section on the Sociology of Children and Youth to promote inclusiveness with scholars who research the lives of adolescents. In addition to including adolescents, American sociologists are also explicitly open to all methods and theories that focus on children. The agenda of the Children and Youth Section has been furthered by its members’ initiation and continued publication of the annual volume Sociological Studies of Children since 1986. In agreement with the ASA section name addition, the volume recently augmented the volume name with and Youth and became formalized as the annual volume of ASA Children and Youth Section. The volume was initially developed and edited by Patricia and Peter Adler and later edited by Nancy Mandell, David Kinney, and Katherine Brown Rosier. Outside the United States, the study of children by sociologists has gained considerable ground through the International Sociological Association Research Group 53 on Childhood, which was established in 1994. Two successful international journals, Childhood and Children and Society, promote scholarly research on children from many disciplines and approaches. In particular, British childhood researchers have brought considerable steam to the development of childhood studies through curriculum development. Specifically, childhood researchers wrote four introductory textbooks published by Wiley for a target Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 147 The Sociology of Children and Youth– †¢ –147 class on childhood offered by the Open University in 2003. The books are Understanding Childhood by Woodhead and Montgomery (2003), Childhoods in Context by Maybin and Woodhead (2003), Children’s Cultural Worlds by Kehily and Swann (2003), and Changing Childhoods by Montgomery, Burr, and Woodhead (2003). The relationship between the discipline of sociology and childhood studies appears to be symbiotic. Even as sociologists assert that the study of children is its own field, this does not preclude the development of childhood studies across disciplinary boundaries. Sociologists capture the social position or status of children and have the methods for examining how childhood is socially constructed or situated within a given society. Sociologists can also continue to find common ground with other childhood scholars from other disciplines to develop better methods and refine theories that explain children’s lives. Advances in the interdisciplinary field of childhood studi es serves to strengthen the research of sociologists who focus their work on children. Likewise, sociological challenges to the interdisciplinary field of childhood studies since the 1990s have provided useful points of critique and improvement to the study of children’s behavior and children’s lives. CURRENT AND FUTURE RESEARCH: SOCIAL POLICY AND CHILDREN’S RIGHTS Current and future research on children falls into two main areas, social policy and children’s rights. Arguably, there is some overlap between these two large themes. Indeed, Stainton Rogers (2004) maintains that social policy is motivated by a concern for children, yet children have very little to no political or legal voice. Children do not vote or decide what is in their best interests or what children’s rights are. Social policy requires us to consider the intersection of children as dependents or not yet adults and children as having certain rights. It has previously been noted that children are citizens and should be treated as citizens but with their own concerns (James and Prout 1997), yet there is still much to be clarified. Public policy can be used to improve the lives of children. Research has established that poverty matters in the lives of children, as measured in child well-being indicators, and public policies have been enacted to help families rise out of poverty (Hernandez 1993). Research on the impact of increased income after a casino opened on a Cherokee reservation indicates that Native-American children who were raised out of poverty had a decreased incidence of behavior disorders (Costello et al. 2003). At other times, public policies affect children as a byproduct or consequence. One example is the 1996 Welfare Reform Law (or PRWORA), which made work mandatory for able-bodied, American adults and put time limits of five years and a day on receiving public assistance. Still, much is to be learned as to the effect, if any, of this legislation on children (Bass and Mosley 2001; Casper and Bianchi 2002). In addition to income, public policy shapes the experience of family life by recognizing some forms while ignoring others. A substantial number of children will experience many family structures and environments as they pass through childhood, regardless of whether the government legitimates all these forms (Clarke 1996). Likewise, examining children’s experiences in various family forms is a useful area of current and future study. Children’s rights can be examined in terms of protecting children from an adult vantage point or in terms of providing children civil rights (or having a legal voice). The view of protecting children is a top-down approach positing that children are immature, and so legal protections should be accorded to keep children safe from harm and abuse and offer children a basic level of developmental opportunities. In contrast, the civil rights approach asserts that children have the right to participate fully in decisions that may affect them and should be allowed the same freedoms of other citizens (Landsdown 1994; Saporiti et al. 2005). In addition, the framing of children’s rights takes different forms in richer and poorer countries around the globe. For richer countries, granting children rights may involve allowing children civil and political voice, whereas in poorer countries, basic human rights bear out as more important. Child labor is an issue that has been examined in terms of the right of children to learn and be developed and the right of children to provide for oneself (see Bass 2004; Neiwenhuys 1994; Zelizer 1985). Future studies wil l also need to consider the relationship between children’s rights as children become study subjects. Innovative approaches are being used to include children’s voices and input in the research process (Leonard 2005), yet there is still much to be done in this area in terms of developing methodologies that allow children to participate in the research process. Indeed, incorporating children in the research process is a next logical step for childhood studies. However, childhood scholars are adults and therefore not on an equal footing with children (Fine and Sandstrom 1988). Furthermore, there is momentum to include children’s perspectives in the research process at the same time that there is a growing concern for children’s well-being, which may be adversely affected by their participation as subjects in the research process. Future research on children should focus on the children’s issues through social policies yet also consider childrenâ€⠄¢s rights in tandem or as follow-up studies. It is generally the matter of course to take children or youth as a definitive given and then seek to solve their problems or create policies for them. Future research should focus on practical children’s issues and use empirical research projects to increase our knowledge of the nature of childhood. The last 15 years provide evidence to support the idea that childhood researchers should continue to bridge disciplines and even continents to find common ground.

Nature of Human Being and reason for beingg

From the Catholic's point of view, if we look at the bible basing room the Old Testament, we have committed sin from the day Adam and Eve bit the apple and this perhaps as always an excuse of humans when they commit mistakes. If we consider science on human evolution, they would say that we were once came from the family of ape, this also affects the perception towards the behavior of human beings because they perceived humans as higher level of the animal kingdom and again have the tendency to commit mistakes. But going deeper, do we really are born to make mistakes?Or in order to achieve perfections we needed to learn sessions by going through the mistakes. For me, the nature of human being and how he exist Is affected by a lot of factors, say by environment, circumstances, upbringing , beliefs etc. We sometimes make decisions not thoroughly think of but because of what we feel or sometimes how other will perceived It as right or wrong. This is because: our behaviors are affected b y the norms set by the environment where we are living or somehow affected by culture that was inculcated in our minds from the day we were born or even when we were still in the womb of our mother.This somehow defines the right and wrong of our action, each human being has his own definition of how we see righteousness and what seems to be not right in our perspectives. We are naturally Influenced by the surroundings but at the end of the day we always see goodness In every human, we always believed that whatever the actions or even mistakes committed, we don't completely removed the idea that somehow there is kindness or goodness in the heart of every human being. I guess, the nature of human being is not imperfectly perfect but we tend to dream of having almost close to perfect life.Contentment and satisfaction is always a challenging word for us. Linking this to genuine happiness adds more heaviness to the word, because, It gives us freedom to choose our own happiness and yet In choosing, we consider circumstances, families, other factors that might impact the happiness we want to have for our own lives. True to the saying, that no man is an island, which man cannot live alone, he needs to be with somebody to show his affection, emotion and love in either way.And this drives us also to do goodness, because we believe hat there is somebody, who can accept us, our faith directs us to do goodness and always reasons for everything we do, and somehow, sometimes being human we tend to forget this, because we perceived that we do not have a choice. But in reality we do, if we do have choices as human being, we have the freedom to think, how to act. The nature of human being for me is the same for each and every one but it only differs when influential factors sets in especially the culture that affects all our situations and ways of thinking.Reasons of Being: For me being is the reasons of existence. But how do we define reasons of being? Why humans do exists? In my own point of view, we were not born out of nowhere. Culture, religion, science environment may happened to affect our existence. We mimic sometimes other personalities or idols that we see or we believed reflect how we want to live our lives. And somehow this gives us directions of our being. Our reasons of being are unending process, it is like a cycle, when we almost are done to end something, and then it gives us another open door to begin on something.A child is born, his path sometimes is being mapped out already by his parents, but the moment he sees his environment, he began to explore things on his own and do things from one way to another until he accomplish something and explore on another thing. We do not seem to be satisfied with having Just any reason for living but we want to find deeper meaning of our existence. We tend to look for our purpose in the society, in humanity or in our day to day existence. The reason for being is because we want to see the meaning of life, we want to know where will it take us and how far can we affect others by our existence.In conclusion The nature of human being is naturally with flaws, we are not perfect but this should not be an excuse for stopping us to be a good person. Committing mistakes will lead us to learning and accept that we are human beings, and like a child we are a work in progress in becoming a better individual, or be the best of what we can be. I happened to read a book â€Å"the Purpose driven life† written by Rick Warren, it is about t the Journey of knowing God's purpose for your life and gives us understanding of the big picture ? how all the pieces of your life fit together.The reason of existence of eyeing is based on how or what we believe that drives us to what we do or we want to have in life. But personally, being a catholic I believed that my reason of being is because I have a purpose to serve God through my interactions with other human beings. To return the favor to othe rs by showing goodness and kindness, and exerting effort to live what the God has wanted us to be. My reason of being is to know the meaning of life and how to experience it. I believe that my life here on earth is Just a preparation of the beginning of my new life when I have the opportunity to see God face to face.

Impact Of Globalisation On Biodiversity Environmental Sciences Essay

Biodiversity is the diversity in the different assortments of vegetations and zoologies in a peculiar home ground. It comprises of the entirety of cistrons, species and ecosystems in a specific topographic point. It serves as a beginning of aesthetic and economic value, is used as nutrient and related points, provides scientific information and replaces technology solutions such as inundation control and H2O pollution suspension. Bio profusion therefore is rated of higher penchant to stand as a major factor for the future economic growing and thereby the overall sustainable development. Globalization is the construct where people, states, engineerings, concerns and webs are interconnected and mutualist politically, economically and socially unhampered by different clip zones doing the whole universe as a incorporate Earth. It helps in the addition of transit and communicating webs and allows cross boundary line trade and resource motions. The international concern activities and transverse national pacts and understandings are done with much easiness. The inquiry put frontward was whether globalization is a cause for the loss of biodiversity. The impression of globalizing the universe comprises of upgrading and furthering of all the sectors and domains of economic system. Peoples started basking the epicurean life styles and became attached to deluxe stuffs and pull pleasance out of it. This drastically depleted the natural resources and their comprehensiveness. Since bio diverseness is the cardinal factor comprising of both the biotic and abiotic factors in an environment, the loss of its impressiveness will drastically impact the present gait and thereby indirectly strike hard on the future coevalss to follow. STANDPOINT PROPOSITION The failure to proper recycling, inefficiency in the procedure of Restoration of the close nonextant assortments by newer birthrate techniques, over development of fossil fuels and tremendous population growing have lead to serious problems. Measures must be taken to seek for the best genteelness evidences and place home grounds that would rejuvenate the endangered species. Ethical values and morale of people must be exploited for the protection of the nonextant vegetations and zoologies. The buffer zones must be encouraged to be set up for making infinite between human intercession and original wild homes. All the intergovernmental administrations and related establishments must come together to organize and take part in meetings and seminars yearly or semi-annually to explicate programs and implement schemes to avoid the concealed catastrophes that could originate from the progressing loss of biodiversity and the rare species. The value of ecosystem balance and a sustainable economic system must be indispensable for a stable economic system. Thus a good attempt must be taken to uplift biodiversity as it contributes to both useful and non useful evidences. I take a mediocre base in the saving of bio diverseness along with globalizing the universe pull outing common benefits from both and lending to a better economic system. Thus a universe would be possible basking the facets of planetary benefits and every bit valuing the bio assets.EssayThe term ‘Globalisation ‘ creates a large difference in the full facet of revolutionizing an economic system. It would bring forth a new universe where people would hold upon common evidences and come into harmoniousness to cover with originating struggles and differences with easiness. It would do the dream of uniting the Earth with a individual civilization, heritage, human rights and criterions come true. The economic systems will unify together for a common end, intent and purpose to separately lend to the overall general development of the communities. The people would come into the point of giving their best by going reciprocally accountable for each other and developing complimentar y accomplishments. Effective engagement and shared leading will be displayed by each and every one being to do their portion go clear and true. There would be right usage of power and its execution by the right set of people at the right juncture. Globalisation would do the engineering to progress and turn in right proportions to all the sectors and countries in equalised sums and contribute for the well being of its beginning. The cognitive, affectional and behavioral forms of economic systems will be furnished to lend more and more to the well being of the states together as a individual unit with defined rules and etiquettes. The basic demands of self realization demands, security concerns, sociableness factors, position and self-respect counts and general morale of the future coevalss will be revised and viewed upon in a different and broader position. The cross boundary line issues and interstate affairs will be held with concerns and peace pacts and dialogues would harmonize different settlements and related districts. Surely globalizing the universe is one of the most of import factors required for instilling a necessary alteration to the economic system. Biodiversity on the other manus is one of the cardinal factors consisting the Earth to its entireness. It is the entirety of cistrons, species and ecosystems together lending to the biotic and abiotic factors of the planet. The profusion of vegetations and fauna constitutes the green factor and spreads the value of aesthetic beauty. It is the basic edifice block of the Earth and is the anchor component giving infinite for future growing and flourishing of newer strains and assortments of species. Since globalization struck the caputs of people, so did happen the extra loss of biodiversity. Peoples began to bask the gustatory sensation of comfort and foolish luxury. The age of Americanisation, Mc donalisation and computerisation paved manner to more and more relaxed methods of life and effortless entree to stuffs. It generated a tract to ready and immediate entr & A ; eacute ; vitamin E to the geting of the demands and wants of greedy psyches. The corporate universe and related establishments began to work the economic system under the name of globalization. Newer coevalss demanded latest and advanced appliances to run into the competence degrees and to fulfill the demands of emerging markets and labour forces. Nanotechnology, biotechnology, biomedical technology, astronauticss, geospatial engineering, genetic sciences, fittingness and holistic nursing, exigency and catastrophe direction schemes, computing machine forensics, robotics and Fieldss like unreal intelligence have c reated a yet different position in the whole life criterions. The strength, enormousness and leaning of interconnection made possible through globalization therefore produced a immense impact on the present being of people. Huge countries got cleared by extra sums of deforestation and replacing of the infinite with new buildings and edifices. The bar factors were suggested by seting speedy turning trees in the topographic point of the cut trees. But speedy turning trees demanded equal measures of excess H2O which was impossible to be provided in such high proportions. The typical illustration was of eucalyptus trees that required tremendous gallons of H2O beginnings for its growing. Since it was a hard move, it eventually lead to a halt to the immediate growth of trees after mass felling. The activities like excavation of fossil fuels like coal and crude oil from marine environments and the oil spills extended the custodies of worlds onto the natural home grounds of the species brooding inside the oceans. In a manner the activities disturbed the full nutrient rhythms in ocean environments. The workss that grow in the surface absorbs the contaminated H2O which harms the little fishes that depend on works ingredients for their endurance. Hence the aglow and eccentric animals that grow in the dusk zone gets harmed which once more spoilt the bigger marauders that dwell in the bathypelagic zone and the abyssal zone. An incident occurred in California where a peculiar strain of pink pelicans got wiped out within few months due to the extra sums of pesticides that was sprayed onto the rivers that was the chief home ground for the pelican population in that part. As a consequence of the toxin, the workss got infected that automatically created jobs to the fishes in that envir onment. So when the pelicans whose chief nutrient was fishes, consumed the fishes as in normal ratios, the toxin entered their organic structure excessively. Since the energy transportation occurs based on a 10 per centum jurisprudence, the measure of toxic chemicals that penetrated into the pelican organic structure besides. The chemical had a substance inside it that eliminated the cause of formation of surfacing for the eggs formed inside the pelican organic structures. As a consequence, when the eggs fell onto the land, broke due to the absence of the difficult shell about. Since neonates were non produced, the species got nonextant with the current population. The debut of alien species is yet another of import factor that lead to the utmost loss of biodiversity. The alien species are introduced for better resiliency and adaptability factors with the environment. They display greater survival capacity with their advanced organic structure accommodations and opposition capablenesss. A typical illustration was the delivery in of the population of mongooses in a peculiar small town to cut down the perturbation of serpents. After a period of clip, the mongooses wiped off the serpents but as a consequence of the complete extinction of serpents in that country, there occurred utmost generation of rats and gnawers since there was an instability in the nutrient concatenation. The terminal consequence was snake control but extra population of mice. Hence the theory is that ne'er do jobs to the natural co-existence of species as it would make other unmanageable problems in the hereafter. The International Union of Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) listed the latest tendencies of biodiversity loss with the aid of nonliteral graphs and ratios. Harmonizing to the surveies, the consequences obtained were that 21 % of mammals, 28 % of reptilians, 37 % of fresh water fish, 70 % of workss are under serious menace. Among the 33 largest biotic deltas, about 24 are in a heavy sinking phase. From the decisions of United Nation Environmental Programme ( UNEP ) yearbook, a rounded figure of US 50 dollars fish stocks have been depleted. The Amazon militants and newsmans have given their analysis on about 80 per centum of the lumber woods being sold illicitly for personal additions under the cloaked name of globalization. The increasing industrial activities and mill mercantile establishments have created mayhem in the nearby vicinity parts and the rivers and lakes in the locality. Excess toxic wastes and chemicals gets drained out onto the lands and the H2O beginnings. As a conseque nce of this toxic secernments, the birthrate of the evidences are lost and it penetrates onto the interior parts of Earth through crannies and holes. Thus the H2O table gets affected and the deeper roots of elephantine trees and workss sucks the venom into it doing great problem in the full nutritionary rhythms and nutrient concatenation. When surface run away and dirty eroding occurs, the chemicals flows onto the rivers and its feeders bring forthing pandemonium and confusion to the fish stocks and marine workss. The vaporization procedure absorbs these harmful and unhealthy toxicant chemical substances onto the ambiance. The rain when occurs causes acerb showers and throw outing of unsafe gases onto the surface of the Earth ‘s beds. Many of these imbalanced rhythms have contributed to the climatic alterations and thaw of polar ice caps thereby deluging the low prevarication parts. Ozone depletions and noxious gases have still been hot subjects in the immediate hereafter. Geneticss have been another field that has brought in greater danger in the present scenario. Though it has played an of import lead function in globalization and its effectual steps by raising improved assortments of cowss and stock, giving better quality harvests, bring forthing healthy and immune strain of animate beings and workss, genetically modified and reengineered merchandises for the nutriment and proper consumption of food enriched nutrient stuffs, it has besides displayed itself as a necessary immorality. Better assortments of harvests and strains of cowss are produced by unreal techniques and methods of cross genteelness and genetically modifying the venereal parts of farm animal. Disease immune and pest immune assortments of harvests and related types have tonss of preservatives and chemicals added onto it to give the excess juicy and juicy visual aspect, which are excessively harmful for the normal metabolic activities to be carried on the human organic structure if co nsumed above optimal bounds. Nowadays Kentucky Fried Chicken ( KFC ) , wallopers and dual beef pattie Burgers have invariably filled the shops, eating houses and bakeshops. Peoples are so addicted to the debris nutrient that there is no manner to do them gain the injury it can do to their delicate tegument and organic structure. The heavy dosage of Calories that gets added onto the organic structure can do unsafe wellness jeopardies like fleshiness, chronic rise in blood force per unit area, bosom onslaughts, palpitations and nervous dislocations. The fat molecules when deposited around the critical variety meats can do bad and alarming symptoms of organic structure upsets. The intercrossed cowss might bring forth milk, flesh and wool in much higher proportion than normal and original strains. But the milk, flesh and related merchandises will be full of injected endocrines and unsafe equalizers. It is non the measure that has to be counted and taken into history, but the quality and wellness parametric quantities. Pollution has been yet another factor that has created jobs for the people. Excess gas emanations, car exhaustions, expulsion of CFCs and toxic chemicals onto the surface of the air causes respiratory upsets and rhinal obstructions. The people populating along the waysides and nearby mill edifices develop tegument, oculus and nose annoyances followed by extra external respiration jobs. The wildlife excessively gets affected with utmost inspiration of toxic gases like C dioxide and C monoxides. The force per unit area therefore generated around the valves of respiratory piece of land for sometime can even take to a province of unconsciousness and if continued decease. Lungs have a minimal capacity to filtrate out the unwanted toxins from the general pollution. When it exceeds the bound, the victim gets subjected to chronic irrecoverable complaints. The ruddy list has cited an dismaying figure of hot spots all around the universe. Rare and last of some of the acute species have gone nonextant due to the high degrees of human intercessions and incursion onto the natural home grounds and homes of the aggregation of species. The chief problem occurs when a peculiar strain of species wholly vanishes from the Earth. There is no agencies to convey it back onto the surface once more into full strength. Therefore the best option is to protect and continue the last endurances and invariably work for its maintainance and upbringing. One would n't cognize the true values of an plus until otherwise it is to the full gone from the visibleness of our eyes. Therefore do the maximal effectual use of resources without doing injury to their reconciliation rhythms and its ego capacity to refill itself. Use is non a job, but the manner of managing it is the right method to be practised by persons. Hence globalization has brought about tonss of positive results but at the same clip created mayhem and upset on the other terminal. Clear cut thoughts and its execution is yet an art that has to be handled and practised by the universe and its dwellers for the well being of the hereafter and the effects to follow. If one does make an issue, he is to the full responsible and apt to endure the effects that are to follow by his/her workss. It has played a really of import function in the devastation and desolation of the biotic militias and its profusion.DecisionGlobalization is a true and positive step that has made a immense impact on the full collection of the universe as a incorporate Earth. The effects and steps of its deductions and scheduling hold brought about tonss of benefits to the universe as an economic system. Peoples have gone frontward into believing earnestly about the whole thought of globalizing the universe due to the increased opportunities of benefit factors and t he idea of a better universe has made them travel for it. Every facet has a positive portion and a negative portion. The positive side is that it has lead to liberalization of trade, made technological promotions, built, stronger cross boundary line dealingss, harmonised the economic systems despite of civilizations dazes, communicating barriers, age and gender prejudice, category disparities and rich hapless inequalities. Globalisation as in itself is a cardinal standards spread outing and widening its roots onto newer and fresher facets of better opportunity and alteration factors and looks frontward for advanced thoughts and chances. The negative side is that the basic nature of globalization is that whoever stands on its manner is removed and destroyed in the procedure of promotion. So whether it is an industrial advancement or a technological works building, no affair what, the environing countries and the nearby home grounds are profoundly destructed and devastated. The promotions are constantly achieved by whatever agencies. There ma y be many establishments and avaricious eyes whose purposes are fixed to pull net incomes and money under the camouflage of advancement and outgrowth as a sole and supreme power. Harmonizing to me summing up all the facets covered till now, I go with my base point proposition as to pull positive benefits from both the parties as both are interlinked and connected to each other. None can brace without the other. So giving infinite for the growing of both at the same time can merely convey about an existent alteration in the development of economic system. Biodiversity is of import for the continuance and endurance of life and globalization is required for the regular and changeless growing of the bing life. It is true that harm may happen on any of the evidences, but make it a point that the amendss affected are less and that the positives overpower the injuries followed. Effective schemes and programs can be brought about to implementing right lengths of criterions and preparation of techniques to prolong the growing of biodiversity and globalization parallely. Scheduling and doing proper programs as to conserve and continue the balance of the bing species and making the environment for their full fledged resurgence are really of import for the future promotion of coevalss. All the environmental administrations and establishments must heartily work together in set uping a common land and harvest out the necessary results for the common benefit of all the economic systems together as one.

Cyber Attacks Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Cyber Attacks - Term Paper Example A background of origin of tense environment between America and the world of terrorism sharply identifies foreign variables in defining the current conditions in the country. The implementation gap on effective anti-terrorism policies identifies in detail the nature of evolving terror environment backed by technology and online computer usage to support the magnitude of current terror threats (Saskia, 2011). The nature of legislation and criminal justice system with respect to provisions of the constitution dominate the remaining sections of the discourse, with case laws illustrating the standoff to flawless war on terror. Two classical cases that defined the interaction between the fight against terror and legally supported government polices illustrate the apparent standoff. Finally, opinion is given on different issues touching on the overall global status of US effort in fighting terrorism. The Department of Homeland Security is a constitutional establishment that takes up the task of ensuring that the country wards off crime and potentially harmful actions, in accordance with the requirements of the constitution with regard to provision of protection by national government. The government deploys resources within its control for provision of a safe environment through the Department of Homeland Security. Internal threats precipitated by actions happening within the country or beyond the borders constitute the concerns of the Department at all times. It is increasingly impossible for America to remain safe, with the impact of foreign intrusions dwelling on the country than ever before. In view of the state of threats to national security, America devotes the largest fraction of its national budget to fund departments entrusted with ensuring that America is safe. If the country did not perceive such threats to be as serious, perhaps the proportion of budgetary allocatio n across the other departments would not show such a huge disparity. Aggression against

Entrepeneurship report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Entrepeneurship report - Essay Example Forecasting in the context of business is taken to be an integral part of the planning function which is organised by business groups and is based on statistical analysis. (Arsham, 1994). Further the new product or service can be presented to the market by letting the consumers slowly adapt to it. The company can encourage the consumers to purchase products at basic levels in the first stage. Through the Freemium model the customers would feel better interested in moving over to more modified models for the product or service. (Anderson & Levine, n.d.). Again the new product or service must aim at reducing the use of materials and energy involved in the production process. The above condition would help in the protection of the natural environment. (Resourcities, n.d.). Observation made shows that United Kingdom offers a growing market for ‘sport and fitness’ products and services. The region offers a host of opportunities pertaining to the stated field reflecting the gr owth of several fitness centres and clubs promoting health and fitness services. This huge opportunity of the growth of health centres reflects that the people in United Kingdom are becoming increasingly health conscious. (British Council, 2004). The fitness industry in United Kingdom must be susceptible to dynamics of the external environment promoting innovation and other social impacts like growth of old customers who desire to spend a large amount of time in fitness and leisure activities. (National Guidance Research Forum, 2004). Literature Review In the literature review section the paper endeavours to focus on several concepts pertaining to the concept of entrepreneurship. Further the paper also tries to analyse the practical situation in respect to the theoretical concepts presented above. Literature review also focuses on the workings of the sports and fitness industry in particular to understand the entrepreneurship opportunity in the sector. The concept of entrepreneurshi p is being continually developed in relation to meeting certain stated objectives. Tiryaki (n.d.) observes to this end that entrepreneurship is developed in any sector focused on some specific issues. Firstly the entrepreneur endeavours to understand the operation of the marketing network in the region in relation to the stated sector. In the second phase entrepreneur seeks to relate the social and profit goals in relation to the level of entrepreneurship activities taken. In light of the above discussion, Tiryaki (n.d.) attempts to conduct a review of three essential theories pertaining to entrepreneurship activities. Firstly entrepreneurship theory devised by Marshall reflects a transparent external environment from where the entrepreneur can derive all types of needed information. This theory also states that the amount of profit generated from entrepreneurship activity does not exceed the benchmark of normal returns and moreover the entrepreneurship process is also compared to a normal process of production activities. However again the analysis rendered by Schumpeter in this direction is also studied which is found to render a more practical framework. Tiryaki (n.d.) states that though Schumpeter’s theory on entrepreneurship presents a more practical framework of the marketing system yet it relates all types of innovation activity

Cancer Pain in End of Life Cancer Patients Essay

Cancer Pain in End of Life Cancer Patients - Essay Example This will be considered a supplementary strategy to the existing official request process. I will also need support from my peers particularly in project review and data collection. I will also need to describe the significance of the project to my peers in order to win their support. Current Problem/ Deficit Pain treatment is a significant aspect in the end of life care. Different people develop different pain symptoms and hence the need for differentiated pain management strategies. Unfortunately, the current pain management strategies concentrate on pain symptoms rather than the source of pain. For example, a doctor will concentrate on symptoms of pain such as headache and backache, rather than the actual cause of the pain. The second issue relates to the definition and scope of pain. The mainstream pain management strategies underestimate the significance of other dimensions of pain such as social and spiritual pain. A comprehensive pain management strategy needs to incorporate t he other aspects of pain. The project proposes a standardized scale to assess pain, using four basic approaches to pain relief, which include: modify the source(s) of pain(s), alter the central perception of pain, modulate transmission of pain to the central nervous system and block transmission of pain to the central nervous system (Ferrel, Levy and Paice, 2008, p.577). Moreover the project proposes an interdisciplinary intervention integrating â€Å"physical, physiological, social and spiritual well-being of the patient so that the patient experiences comfort and dignity at the end of life. The process will involve counseling and use of pain relieving medication. Medication is primarily intended to relieve physiological pain without inflicting additional... The paper throws light on pain treatment as a significant aspect in the end of life care. Different people develop different pain symptoms and hence the need for differentiated pain management strategies. Unfortunately, the current pain management strategies concentrate on pain symptoms rather than the source of pain. For example, a doctor will concentrate on symptoms of pain such as headache and backache, rather than the actual cause of the pain. The second issue relates to the definition and scope of pain. The mainstream pain management strategies underestimate the significance of other dimensions of pain such as social and spiritual pain. A comprehensive pain management strategy needs to incorporate the other aspects of pain. The project proposes a standardized scale to assess pain, using four basic approaches to pain relief, which include: modify the source(s) of pain(s), alter the central perception of pain, modulate transmission of pain to the central nervous system and block t ransmission of pain to the central nervous system. Moreover the project proposes an interdisciplinary intervention integrating â€Å"physical, physiological, social and spiritual well-being of the patient so that the patient experiences comfort and dignity at the end of life. The process will involve counseling and use of pain relieving medication. Medication is primarily intended to relieve physiological pain without inflicting additional complications on the patient.

Rewards Managemnet of Apple Inc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Rewards Managemnet of Apple Inc - Essay Example It shows the different kinds of rewards structures and the way each of them contributes towards enhancing employee motivation and performance and in what ways too. The various arguments presented by the researchers on the subject are presented in the critical analysis of the literature review. The rewards and compensation structure of Apple Inc has been provided in the light of the literature review and comparisons are provided against the same. Finally recommendations are provided as to the changes or modifications can be brought about in the reward structure in Apple based on the drawbacks of loopholes which follows from the analysis Introduction- Company background The successful corporate leaders have increasingly recognized the fact that their basis of competitive advantage in the market is their human resource or their people. They have also acknowledged the fact that organizations must emphasize on managing their human resource with greater importance as work environments rema in extremely dynamic and keeps changing with great pace. In this context the role of reward management for motivating and inspiring employees to deliver their best contributions in the organization cannot be ignored. The case of Apple Inc is discussed in length in this project. Apple Inc is a multinational corporation based in the United States that producing and marketing consumer electronic goods, computer softwares as well as personal products. The company is well known for producing iPods, iPhones and iPads. The company operates through 357 different retail stores across 10 different locations and is rated as one of the largest global publicly traded organizations. It also accounts for the largest technology company in the world market in terms of profits and revenues. The basis on which the company’s human resource management strategies are built is its recognition of the crucial importance of organizational structures and the people or the human resource which comprises this structure. The strategy demonstrates a complete response to competence, creativity, competencies and constraints which individuals carry with them or create at the workplace. In all its human resource strategies the company seeks to assure superior performance of employees and this is achieved through high end compensation and rewards management system. The idea is to create a workforce which is highly motivated to perform to the best of their abilities in the organization consequently providing a competitive edge for the organization in the market. Literature review on rewards management theory The theories on motivation and rewards management primarily distinguish between the two main kinds of rewards, which are categorized as being extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are in the form of money or other verbal reinforcements which are mediated from outside the individuals while intrinsic rewards are those which are mediated within the individuals or persons. Researchers consider a person to be intrinsically motivated to conduct an activity if there are apparently no rewards associated apart from the work activity itself. In fact all the theories of motivation considering the two kinds of rewards as developed by researchers and practitioners consider or assume the fact that the resulting effects on

Learning to read and write Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Learning to read and write - Essay Example The desire to read and learn how to write was also a primary factor in Douglass’s life. His whole life in Master Hugh’s family was spent conflicting with anyone who stood in the path of his desire to read and write. As a matter of fact, Douglass knew the effects of learning to read and write after seeing the changes in his mistress’s actions. The mistress changed from the tender-hearted, pious woman into a tiger-like fierce person who was more violent in her oppositions to the slaves than her husband (Douglas 1). The stories by Rodriguez and Douglass illustrate that education and the ability to learn and write were the only measures as stressed by the people around them to improve their lives. The world viewed education as the primary factor that could change the life of an individual. The master in Douglass’s case opposed the desire to educate the slaves and influenced the wife to do the same because they never considered it efficient to train a slave. Through education, the slaves would develop a sense of worthiness that would be damaging to the masters. The masters knew the power of learning to read and write and the consequences they would face had the slaves managed to do so. Douglas seemed to have a strong affinity to books and preferred facing the consequences than avoiding reading a book. He seemed to have an idea that books would be the key to his salvation. However, Douglas and Rodriguez failed to understand the adverse effects their actions would cause to their life. They failed to realise that there are two sides to every coin and that what has the power to make one free had the ability to blind and destroy them. Reading and writing abilities seemed to be the key to their success. However, soon after achieving their desires, they realized that they had achieved totally different results from what they expected. Douglas realized that he had been dreaming for most of his life and the ability to not understand the

Global Warming and how it Relates to Tsunami Essay

Global Warming and how it Relates to Tsunami - Essay Example Michael Crichton's "State of Fear," for example, claims of eco-terrorists creating ecological disasters like tsunami in an effort to reinforce paranoia about abrupt climate change (Apologetics 2005). Hundreds of scientists, however, including those from the National Academy of Sciences, the American Geophysical Union and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change consider the challenges raised by Crichton that global warming is here on account of human-caused emissions, not just natural factors (NRDC 2004). In its annual report, the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) said higher temperatures may cause drought, disease, floods, and lost ecosystems and that global warming effects have already begun from sweltering heat to rising seas (GW, NRDC n.d.). Solutions are however in sight, with them knowing that most heat-trapping gases come from: power plants and vehicles. Hence, part of the action will have to come from curbing emissions, employing modern technologies and stronger laws, promoting online activism, pressing businesses to use less energy and build more efficient products, and fighting for laws that will speed these advances (Ibid). Global warming refers solely to the fact that the Earth's atmosphere is warming near its surface. It simply means the earth is getting hotter but does not imply a cause or speak to cause something. The scientific community believes climate changes like global warming have occurred throughout Earth's history and will continue to occur in the future (What is GW, WiseGeek 2005). Terms and meanings. Climate scientists who prefer references to climate, claim that the term, global warming, is imprecise and should be avoided in public communication as it is confusing. However one noted that the terms 'global warming' and "climate change" both emphasize the natural variability of climate, while downplaying the role of anthropogenic forcing. Accordingly, scientists should rather insist on scientific terms such as 'enhanced greenhouse effect', 'changes to atmospheric composition', 'climate disruption', and 'human climate forcing' as these terms are more precise, less controversial, and less politicized than either "global warming" or "climate change". (Tobis 2004). Moreover, "global warming" is too loaded a term and is threatening to people, and when the Bush administration introduced the term, "climate variability," people are really scared. The problem with the term, "global warming," is that it merely connotes increase in temperatures which is not. There is the hydrology part of it which can cause much destruction as in tsunami (Ibid). Scientific consensus. At an unprecedented rate heat-trapping pollution from fossil fuels and other sources is warming the planet according to more and more evidences supporting this conclusion. Moreover, climate models designed by NASA and others are also conclusive in their findings of human activities causing climate change (NRDC 2004). No evidences.. There is no evidence, however, that humans are responsible for increasing global temperatures. Furthermore, carbon dioxide emissions have actually been beneficial to the environment. (Robinson and Robinson 1997). The cause of global warming in the first place, is primarily natural, not manmade (Gerhard 2005). The earth evolves and has changes in orbit and in solar radiation (Ibid). Volcanic GW. Global warming caused by volcanic activity may have caused the

Black Water security and what they do in Iraq as security contractors Essay

Black Water security and what they do in Iraq as security contractors - Essay Example Blackwater is one of the most high profile private security firms working in Iraq. Blackwater Worldwide along with its subsidiaries, Blackwater Training Center, Blackwater Target Systems, Blackwater Security Consulting and Blackwater Canine is engaged in the task of providing security to American officials in Iraq, in keeping with the company’s aim of employing a â€Å"new generation of capability, skills, and people to solve the spectrum of needs in the world of security† (Blackwater Security.com.) The services the company renders, include providing security for the American military bases, the Green Zone, infrastructure, weapons demolition, cash transport, guarding important military, civilian and government dignitaries, gathering of intelligence, covert operations, psychological warfare, and most importantly, training Iraqi security forces. (Government Accountability Office, Rebuilding Iraq: Actions Needed to Improve Use of Private Security Providers (July 2005) (GAO-05-737).) Being the security provider for sensitive and important officials of the government and also the military, Blackwater personnel have to often engage in fights with the locals and in one such incident in Baghdad on September 16, 2007, 14 Iraqi civilians and 18 others were wounded, while escorting a convoy through the city. This incident pushed the company into the limelight and it has had to face some hard truths about the way in which it is running its operations in Iraq. The government of USA has been able to increase the number of ground staff by employing private security operatives. This has helped them to maintain the troop levels on the ground without resorting to draft. These private security operators are a part of a ‘shadow army’ which is better trained and equipped than some of the militaries of many countries. In August 2003, Blackwater officially became the security provider for the U.S. civilian

1.Visit a museum or gallery exhibition or attend a theater, dance, or Essay - 1

1.Visit a museum or gallery exhibition or attend a theater, dance, or musical performance - Essay Example (Sullivan&Sheffrin, 2003). The museum is divided into two; the North and South wings, housing the department of Biology and Geology respectively. At the main entrance, there is a sculpture on the ground level with a massive pigmented stone on the doorway, flanked by standing lamps designed in a well groomed manner. The museum has an atrium gallery with plenty of space, dominated by a well-designed sweeping staircase made of Alabama marble and well supported by manicured iron. The two departments have classrooms and laboratories, with basements housing the Museum’s teaching collections and field equipment; both are used by students and lectures. The museum provides a natural historical experience. It contains thousands of invaluable specimens from all kinds of scientific research. It contains historical documents, records and souvenirs which are well preserved. The visit gives one a full glimpse of what natural diversity means by exhibiting a number of dinosaurs, coal age, ice age and others. There is also a distinct exhibition of extinct collections of Geological artefacts and Zoology, which included preserved animals placed in clear enclosed windowpanes. Different minerals were also presented, some old, and having different textures and colours. Examples of the minerals included gem stones, iron ores, silt, diamonds, and specks of copper. Palaeontology items included different types of plant species, shrubs, leaves, seeds and ethnologically written documents explaining facts and whereabouts of different tribes in the world. Lastly, there was a number of photography that was done in different scenes in different time perio ds, showing different locations, or countries of the world. All the specimens, artefacts and other historical items were all labelled as properties of the museum. The well-marked names, labels and short brief descriptions of the items of specimens provided the learner or the viewer with a clear meaning of

How Thomas Hardy portrays women in his stories Essay Example for Free

How Thomas Hardy portrays women in his stories Essay The three stories all have very social, historical and cultural impacts on the women of the time. The Withered Arm, is about a womans, struggle to cure her withered arm and the jealousy felt by Rhoda who had been used by the farmer in the past and had born his child. Gertrudes fear of loosing her husband and her superstition make her carry out actions that result in her death. The next story, The Distracted Preacher, is about an independent woman called Lizzy and the choice she has to make. She is involved in smuggling and the head of the gang but is offered a different life by Minister Stockdale, who asks her to marry him and leave. She decides to stay but gets caught and suffers for some years till he returns and offers again to marry him, this time she accepts but only because of circumstances. The third story, The Melancholy Hussar of the German Legion, is about a shy, naive middle class woman called Phyllis and her fight between her conscience, her fathers desire and her true love. She chooses her conscience and in the end loses everything. The Withered Arm has two main female roles: Rhoda Brooks and Gertrude Lodge. They both have very different backgrounds; Rhoda is the poor working class woman while Gertrude is the pretty upper middle class women. Rhoda has to work for her son and herself just to eat; she has no husband and so is an outcast from society and has to keep herself to herself. Because of this she has no male role model for her son. Rhoda is a thin, fading women of thirty, which emphasises how hard she works and how tiring her life is. In comparison Gertrude is the typical married middle class woman, with lots of time on her hands. She is youthful and pretty, soft and evanescent, which is why Farmer Lodge married her. Rhoda has a very wicked side, which shows itself when Gertrude arrives in town. She becomes jealous and wants to know all about the well-awaited new wife. She becomes obsessed with her and makes her son find out about Gertrude and follow her, Then do you go to Holmstoke church to-morrow: shes sure to be there. This jealousy links in with the superstition of that time when Rhodas dream about Gertrude having a withered arm comes true. At that time everyone believed each village had its own witch. The witch could curse victims and make limbs wither or in extreme cases fall off. From this we can see how worried Rhoda would have been, believing she was a witch, that I exercise malignant power against my own will? This illustrates that Rhoda feel sympathetic for Gertrude and responsible for her arm. She fears what she might do to her and what may happen if she is a witch. Even though she has this evil side, you see that she does contain some sympathetic qualities. For example Rhoda recognises the gruesome fascination which leads her to find Gertrude but she is unwilling to tell her where to find Conjuror Trendle for fear that she will lose Gertrudes friendship. Hardy shows Rhodas point of view throughout the story so you feel sympathetic especially when we find the dead boy is her son. She is very independent and strong so in the end wants nothing to do with Farmer Lodge and the fling therefore refuses his sympathy vote and doesnt accept his money. Gertrude starts by being very kind and loving, she gives Rhodas son some shoes and befriends Rhoda and creates a close relationship with her. Rhoda appears concerned; particularly about Gertrudes imagined rejection by her husband. Her personality changes for the worst when her arm becomes withered. Gertrude relies on Rhoda for a concerned understanding of the growing separation between herself and her husband, who knows the disfigurement is there. The choice of the word disfigurement reveals his attitude to appearances. Social attitudes demanded that middle class women were beautiful and attractive. She turns vain and selfish, obsessed by her arm and the need to find a cure, Her determination received a fillip. She finds a treatable cure for the arm after trying so many. Shes now determined to try this one even though it involves such indignity. This is all too much for Gertrude when she finds out who the boy is in reality Rhodas son. She isnt so vain and determined, she is actually very shocked and started to feel sympathy for the victim and in end the superstition and shock kills her. In the Distracted Preacher the main female role is Lizzy Newbury a middle class, strong-minded, character who, was none the less independent. This emphasises how Lizzy is able to lead her village in successful smuggling. Shes an attractive, local girl who can take on an immense job for a women in those times but Lizzy does it as well as any man could. Lizzy is a widower and looks after her mother, as well as the customers of her Lodge, where Mr Stockdale goes to stay. She values her job and sees nothing wrong with smuggling, If a king who is nothing to us sends his people to steal out property, we have the right to steal it back. This illustrates how Lizzy doesnt care whether people think her smuggling is wrong she has reason to do it and she lives off the money and the adventure. The smuggling is tradition: My father did it, and so did my grandfather, and almost everybody in Nether-Moynton lives by it, and life would be so dull if it wasnt for that, that I should not care to live at all. This shows that Lizzy is no ordinary woman she sticks with what she wants and doesnt look up to men as a higher being besides shes a decisive woman and gets her way. She needs to carry on even though her romance with Stockdale gets in the way because he doesnt agree with it, so Lizzy uses vigorous but absurd arguments to justify her actions. To begin with Lizzy doesnt want to go away with Stockdale and marrying him, It is too much to ask. My whole life ha been passed in this way. She needs to stay in Nether-Moynton where the adventure is and not do what normal females do. Later we see Lizzys resolve deteriorates; she needs Stockdale because the money earnt from smuggling runs out. After all her talk about needing smuggling and it being fine to do it, she says it wrong, I own that we were wrong, said she. But I have suffered for it: I am very poor now, Lizzy wants Stockdale now she is poor and worthless and Stockdale offers to take her away from her poverty. Lizzy gives in and takes this offer, then settles down to the married life she once hated the thought of living because of its lack of adventure and predictability. This ending is problematic as Lizzy changed her attitudes totally. This ending was also added for the readers. The story was published each week in a magazine. Hardy wrote the ending to please the audience and give them an ending most women would of taken. There is an alternative ending to this story that isnt so problematic. This is that Lizzy would have married Owlett a member of the smuggling gang and immigrated to America. The Melancholy Hussar of the German Legion has one main female role, that of Phyllis Grove an attractive middle class young lady. She is very quiet, keeps herself to herself and just likes to blend into society. She was a woman who lived her whole life without going further than the nearest market. The only family she has is her father so she has no female role model to guide her through life, this has made her very inexperienced in relationships, though it is probable that she lost her heart to Matthaus before she is herself aware. She never realised she was in love with Matthaus; she had never felt love before so never knew what this feeling was. She values her fathers opinion greatly and her father doesnt like whats going on between Matthaus and herself. He considers the soldiers merely foreign fellows who flatter young girls with unmeaning attentions. Phyllis finds Matthaus refined and well-educated. He is loving towards her, concerned about her loneliness, he does not put too much pressure on her to escape and marry him. She becomes very conscience stricken between the two men; will she go with her fathers choice (Humphrey) or her romance Matthaus? She decided the best thing to do was to conform to society and her father and marry Humphrey, She would stay at home, and marry him, and suffer. This shows that she is doing this for her father it wouldnt be love but she could live with it for her families and the moneys sake. Later we see that Phyllis has a problem as Humphrey wants to marry another woman, Belle, and Matthaus and a friend gets shot for desertion. Poor Phyllis has now been torn from fighting between two men to being alone again. We see Phylliss life if effected by this, while she lived she used to keep their mounds neat, meaning Matthaus grave. This shows Phylliss love for Matthaus still carried on when he died and this tragedy deeply affected her. In the three stories I have read the four female characters all have similarities and differences. Gertrude is similar to all three characters. She is similar to Rhoda because they both believe in superstition and worry about what is happening to them due to it. Through the story we feel sympathy for them: for Gertrude with her withered arm and death and Rhoda for being a single parent and so an outcast and for when she sees Gertrude with her arm on her dead sons neck. The sympathy vote changes throughout the story between Rhoda and Gertrude. Gertrude is like Lizzy because they are both attractive, strong-minded women. Gertrude is different to Lizzy aswell as like her because Gertrude conforms to mens expectations but Lizzy is independent and only relies on Stockdale at the end. Phyllis is probably most like Gertrude as they are both very traditional women characters for their times. They are weak women who become victims of men and the social influences of their time. Phyllis becomes a heart broken girl due to her fianci messing her around and her actual love being shot. Gertrude becomes obsessed and vain because her husband is disgusted by the fault with her arm and starts to love her less for it. Phyllis has a rich fianci and Gertrude has a rich husband. Lizzy is similar to Rhoda too because they are both strong-willed, independent women that can cope by themselves without men by their sides. This means Lizzy and Rhoda are both very different to Phyllis because she is timid and shy, she can be manipulated easily unlike Lizzy and Rhoda who manipulate other people. Phylliss character is very dependent as she does as she is told, conforming to societys expectations. If things had gone to plan then her life would be totally taken care of without her lifting a finger, when we know Lizzy chose to be independent and Rhoda had to be independent to look after her family. In my view, I admire Lizzy because she is very outgoing and a leader, which shows women to be able to lead men in this world and she can still be attractive and feminine. She seems to put men in their places by refusing Stockdales offer of marriage instead of being a stereotypical woman of that time married, at home cooking, cleaning and looking after the children. She speaks her mind when she wants to stay because smuggling gives her adventure and when she tells Stockdale there nothing wrong with smuggling. This is why I like the alternative ending that Hardy mentions in his footnote when she goes to America because she doesnt need the sympathy for being poor she stays strong and independent. Even though at the end I felt sorry for Rhoda because of her son, I was never fond of her character. She seemed evil throughout the story as if she had other secrets not yet revealed. Her character was very sneaky, holding things back from Gertrude when she was untruthful. I think Rhoda is to blame for all Gertrudes problems: she placed the curse and took Gertrude to Conjuror Trendle and she paid the price of that horrendous sight. This all made me very sympathetic towards Gertrude and I know how if feels to be superficially stereotyped. She never did anything to Rhoda and died as a consequence to Rhodas jealousy. I also sympathise with Phyllis because men ruined her life, her life was ruined by the societys strict rules at that time to do the right thing and marry for position and money, and the shooting for desertion of her true love. Men have a great impact on women and can make our lives fun, yet some men make our lives more misery than fun. In my opinion Hardy portrays women with respect, he makes them strong and independent, manly in a sense. In the early 1800s women all had their places in the world, which was in the home. Hardy brought these women out of their world and into the beginning of our not so sexist England today. Men and Society had the main impact on women of this era; I believe this is why Hardys stories were loved in this age. Women could read them and think that they had a greater role in this era and they were more intelligent than men thought. I also believe men should have read these books to see how independent and important women are to this world. It was very important for women of this era to get their thoughts and strengths across to the world, so they could begin to live as equals to men.